The bearing of intelligently located houses of proper construction on
health is not so generally understood, even by physicians, as the facts
warrant, and, of course, is even less well recognized by the non-medical
public. It is true that some attention has been given to the matter of
_location_, but even in this connection there prevails a woful ignorance
among all classes as to just how the diseases are transmitted that are
most influenced in this way. As a result of recent advances in medicine
it has been clearly shown that at least some of the diseases that are
most influenced by locality may be easily avoided, and as a consequence
we find that the views of the modern sanitarians have necessarily
undergone a certain amount of change in this direction. On the other hand
recognition of the necessity of hygienic _construction_ has not been
sufficiently accentuated,--since it is possible by proper attention to
the details of building to do away entirely with at least two of the
diseases that have heretofore been the principal drawbacks to life in all
tropical and sub-tropical countries. Much importance likewise attaches to
houses being thoroughly ventilated, and to their being sufficiently roomy
to properly accommodate their inmates. The following table shows the
striking relationship that mortality bears to over-crowding:--
RELATION OF DEATH-RATE TO DENSITY OF POPULATION.
City. Mean number Average death-rate
of inhabitants per 1,000 inhabitants.
to each house.
London 8 24
Berlin 32 25
Paris 35 28
St. Petersburg 52 41
Vienna 55 47
Many other statistics could be quoted, but all follow the general trend
of those just given.
_Choice of Site._--In our rural districts the inhabitants have a wide
latitude in the matter of the selection of the location for their
houses, and it is usually the case that our people are sufficiently
intelligent to make the best use of their opportunities in this
direction. It may, however, be mentioned that it is generally considered
that building-sites in the neighborhood of cemeteries are not favorable
locations, nor should houses be erected in the vicinity of a
manufacturing plant that gives off injurious gases, or obnoxious
materials of other kinds. Inasmuch as we now know that malaria is
transmitted by a certain mosquito, and that by properly screening the
house their attacks may be avoided, the necessity no longer exists for
avoiding the vicinity of lakes and rivers as building-sites; such
localities being as a rule pleasant and often picturesque, they would
naturally under ordinary circumstances be selected, and there now remains
no reason why this may not be done,--provided that the house is so
constructed that mosquitoes can be effectually prevented from gaining
entrance.
Of much importance is the selection of a locality where good and pure
water can be easily procured, as otherwise disastrous consequences are
sure to follow.
The soil should be of a light and porous character, easily permeable by
water, and free from the decomposing remains of excretions of man or
animals. There is much reason for the belief also that the level of the
ground-water plays a somewhat important part in the salubrity of any
given locality, and it is generally considered that this should be at
least ten feet below the surface. It is generally thought, and probably
with truth, that those sites are most healthful which have their location
on a basis of granite, or other rock-foundation; in such localities there
is usually a considerable slope of the general surface of the ground,
with the result that water rapidly runs off after rains, and consequently
stagnant pools, which might serve as a breeding place for mosquitoes and
bacteria, do not form. Soils through which water easily permeates are
likewise, as a rule, healthy, though this depends in a measure upon
whether or not they contain a very considerable proportion of vegetable
matter. Clay foundations are healthful where there is a considerable
slope to the surface of the ground, but where this does not exist the
soil is damp, owing to its impermeability, and often has stagnant pools
upon its surface. Marls and alluvial soils are not regarded as being
wholesome, but it is not unlikely that their bad reputation is largely
due to the fact that they generally exist in the neighborhood of rivers
and other considerable bodies of water where mosquitoes are numerous.
There are no reasons going to show that cultivated lands are
unhealthy--even where they receive yearly abundant additions of manure.
Where it is necessary to build in damp localities the site should be
thoroughly drained, and the space upon which the house is constructed
should be carefully covered with some impermeable cement.
_Building Materials._--Of all building materials, the one most commonly
employed in America is wood. This arises from the fact that in the past
we have had unlimited quantities of timber from which lumber could be
procured at a price so reasonable that no other material could ordinarily
be considered. That the wooden house has some advantages cannot be
denied; its walls rapidly cool following the torrid days that so commonly
occur during the summer in almost all portions of the United States, and
it is usually well ventilated as a result of the numerous fissures
naturally existing in its structure.
Next to wood, bricks are most commonly used for building purposes, and
have many advantages, among which are their handsome effect, their
stability, and their being poor conductors of heat; the last mentioned is
of considerable importance, since it keeps both heat and frost from
rapidly permeating the interior, and as a consequence houses constructed
of this material are cooler in summer and warmer in winter.
Other materials occasionally used are concrete, granite, marble, and
sandstone, any of which, on account of their durable character and the
beauty that they lend to structures made from them, may be selected for
building purposes, but inasmuch as they are rarely used in rural
districts, a detailed consideration of their peculiar advantages for
building purposes is not deemed here necessary.
The internal wall-coating of houses deserves more consideration than is
commonly accorded it, since the dyes used for coloring wall-paper and
curtains in some instances contain noxious materials. Chief among those
that are dangerous are the bright green pigments which commonly contain
arsenic as their principal constituent; where these or other poisonous
substances are employed in interior decorations the air, wherever the
room is kept closed, may become more or less impregnated with poisonous
gases, and serious consequences to the inmates may ensue.
_Screening Indispensable to Health._--Nothing is more important in
connection with house construction than having every opening thoroughly
screened. We have learned that both malaria and yellow fever are
transmitted always by certain kinds of mosquitoes, and it therefore,
becomes a matter of the greatest importance to effectually prevent the
entrance of these insects. It cannot be too strongly insisted upon that
we absolutely know that the statement just made is correct, and that
avoiding the diseases referred to becomes as a consequence entirely a
matter of preventing the entrance of mosquitoes into houses.
The _Anopheles_ mosquito, which is the one that transmits malaria, often
exists in localities where the more common varieties do not occur, and on
account of the habits of this insect their presence is liable to be
overlooked. They seldom attempt to bite during the day, and it is only
rarely the case that they try to do so at night in a well lighted
room;--particularly where movement of any kind is going on. During the
day this mosquito remains perfectly quiet in the dark corners of the
house, and is very fond of resting on cobwebs, presenting, when doing so,
an appearance strikingly similar to that of fragments of leaves, soot or
of other natural objects that are frequently found suspended on such
structures. On account of these peculiarities and for the further reason
that the insect bites mainly just following daybreak, when the victim is
profoundly unconscious in sleep, its presence often remains undetected,
and as a consequence we occasionally hear from those who do not take the
trouble to inform themselves that malaria exists in this or that locality
where mosquitoes do not occur.
The yellow-fever mosquito bites for the most part during the day, but
will do so at any time when there is light. In districts where this
disease occurs it is quite as important to prevent its entrance as that
of the malarial mosquito. Not only does screening prevent malaria and
yellow fever, but it keeps out flies and other insects that
unquestionably bring with them the germs of other diseases.
There now remains no doubt that several affections, notably typhoid fever
and dysentery, are frequently communicated by means of the common
house-fly, which spends its time alternately on the fecal material around
privies or in other filth, and in our kitchens and dining-rooms; it is
one of the most astounding evidences of the power of habit, in the face
of common sense and ordinary decency, that we have not long ago taken
active steps to rid ourselves of its disgusting presence. Fortunately in
screens we have a perfect barrier to the entrance of flies, and no house
can be considered complete without being thoroughly equipped with these
all-necessary appliances.
It is scarcely possible to overestimate the economy that results from the
use of screens; among the various means employed for conserving the
public health they take first rank, and undoubtedly insure those who live
in houses to which they have been added an immunity against the costly
effects of disease that could scarcely be computed. A house would be more
habitable without chairs, beds, or tables than screens, since in the
absence of the former we may be healthy, though somewhat uncomfortable,
but without the latter serious disorders are pretty certain, sooner or
later, to make their appearance.
It is of considerable importance to use a screen the mesh of which is
sufficiently fine. Where mosquitoes exist, the screen should be of such
fineness that at least sixteen, or better eighteen meshes be in each inch
of the gauze. Where it is absolutely certain that mosquitoes are not to
be feared, the spaces may be somewhat larger--but always of such size as
will prevent the entrance of the smallest fly.
_Air-space Required._--It is of much importance from a hygienic
standpoint that the rooms of dwellings should be sufficiently large. The
height should never be less than eight feet, and the living-room should
be made as large as circumstances will permit. Bed-chambers should
contain at least 1,000 cubic feet of air space for each adult, with
somewhat less for children, though it should never be forgotten that the
more the better; this means that each person should have the equivalent
of a room which is at least 10 x 12 x 9 feet.
_Heating._--Americans are extravagant in the matter of heating to a
degree that astonishes the average foreigner, and it is by no means sure
that we do not go to unhygienic extremes in this direction. It is not,
perhaps, true that the excessive heat itself could be considered as
especially hurtful, but it is too often the case that the conditions
required to secure the degree of heat preferred by us are incompatible
with proper ventilation, and hence are to be condemned. It is generally
considered that the temperature of living-rooms should be somewhere about
70°F.; for many persons this is lower than would be entirely comfortable,
and as a consequence our houses in the winter are frequently kept nearer
80°F. than the figure just given. The reader should be urged to see to it
that, at whatever temperature his habitation is kept, a sufficient amount
of ventilation be secured.
There are many different methods of heating, the most satisfactory of
which are by means of hot water or steam; a modified form of the latter
is the so-called vapor method, which in recent years has proven extremely
satisfactory. Hot air, supplied by a furnace is also extensively used,
and for the reason that by this method fresh air from the outside is
constantly brought into the house, it is theoretically to be commended;
practically, however, a considerable difficulty is experienced in
securing an equable distribution of this heat throughout the various
parts of the house, and as a consequence it has not achieved the
popularity that it would otherwise have done.
Inasmuch as the installation of plants for heating by the methods just
referred to entails quite an expense, and for the further reason that
they require coal for satisfactory operating, they have not been employed
in the rural districts of America to any considerable extent. The farmer,
for the most part, depends on the old open fireplace where wood is
plentiful and the weather does not become excessively cold, while in
those portions of the country where the temperatures in winter go very
low, the stove is generally employed. Of the two methods, the former is
much the more hygienic where it can be used successfully, but over a
greater portion of the United States this cannot be done owing to the
cold winter climate.
The principal objection to the stove lies in the fact that the heat that
comes from it is very dry, and that where its walls have to be heated
excessively, unpleasant odors are apt to be generated; the former is
usually and ought always to be obviated by keeping upon the stove a
vessel of water, the vapors from which moisten the atmosphere, and the
latter by having the stove of such size that it will not require
excessive heating in order to warm the room in which it is placed.
Wherever possible the open fireplace is to be preferred to the stove for
the reason that it very thoroughly ventilates the room.
_Ventilation._--In order that the health of the inmates may be conserved
proper ventilation of all habitations is essential. However cold the
weather may be, an abundance of fresh air should be allowed to enter all
parts of the house. In the average wooden dwelling there are so many
cracks that good ventilation is generally secured without opening doors
or windows, but where the construction does not permit this, openings for
the entrance of air should be left in the most convenient and suitable
places. Windows may be slightly raised and draughts prevented by proper
screening, or what is even better, rooms should be so constructed that
they have openings at the top and at the bottom to allow free
ventilation. Openings towards the upper portion of rooms are especially
important in hot weather, as the warm air rises to the ceiling and
escapes only very slowly where such exits do not exist. Lowering windows
from the top aids materially in allowing the hot air to escape, but this
is not altogether so satisfactory as having openings higher up on the
walls, or in the ceiling.
_Disposal of Sewage._--No problem that confronts the dweller in the rural
district is of greater importance than the proper disposal of sewage. It
is unfortunately impossible in most instances for the farmer to have in
his house a system of water-works, and, therefore, all dish-waters and
slops are thrown into the yard, and a privy is used instead of a modern
water-closet. Where the lay of the land is such that water readily runs
off, or the soil is of a character that permits rapid absorption,
throwing slops on the ground around the house may not constitute a danger
to the inmates, but nothing is more certain than that the old fashioned
privy is a dire menace to the health of all those in its vicinity.
Not only are infectious materials brought into houses by flies, from
fecal matter and other excretions, but they are carried away by the
rains and sometimes contaminate sources of water-supply. It is
furthermore extremely probable that bacteria in particles of dust from
dried fecal material may be carried by the winds from privies into wells
and houses, and as a consequence diseases may be spread; of perhaps still
more importance--and certainly of far greater moment all over the
southern portions of the country--is the fact that hook-worm disease and
other infections caused by animal parasites are transmitted from man to
man as the result of our adherence to the old fashioned privy.
As will be explained in the chapter devoted to the common communicable
diseases, the eggs of the hook-worm pass from the intestine along with
the feces of those who are victims of this parasite and reaching the
ground, hatch out in the course of a few days minute hook-worm embryos,
which crawl away and permeate the soil in the vicinity; later collecting
in little pools that form after rains, or in dew-drops during the night,
they attach themselves to the skin of barefooted children who come in
contact with such collections of water, and boring into the body
ultimately, through a circuitous route, reach the intestines. Here they
undergo further development, and in a short time become mature
hook-worms, which in their turn lay eggs, and the life cycle begins over
again. It is thus seen that a child having hook-worm disease becomes a
menace, on account of the privy, to its brothers and sisters, and of
course quite commonly receives back into its own body, worms that had
previously escaped as eggs.
In the same way eggs of the two common tapeworms pass out with the feces,
and the offal containing them being eaten by hogs in the one case, or
being scattered in the vicinity and taken in with grass by cows in the
other, have their shells dissolved off as soon as they reach the stomachs
of these animals, and there are liberated small embryos that bore through
the walls of the stomach and later find their way into the muscular
tissues of these beasts, and there lie dormant until eaten by man with
imperfectly cooked meat; after being swallowed, the embryo parasite
passes to the intestine and soon becomes a fully developed tapeworm.
Particular reference at this point should be directed to the evil
effects, which are even still greater than those that come from the
privy, of permitting children and hired helpers to scatter their feces
indiscriminately in corners of the yard, the apple-orchard, or in the
horse-lot; under such circumstances, where hook-worm disease is once
introduced, the soil in the course of a short time becomes thoroughly
permeated with the embryos of this worm, and, as a consequence, all of
the children who play in the infected area barefooted, as is customary in
the country, are sooner or later infected with these parasites. It is
thus seen that soil-pollution from fecal material is a most dangerous
thing, and, particularly in the southern portion of the United States,
deserves the most earnest consideration of everyone. We should see to it
that our children only evacuate their bowels in properly constructed
closets; and it is the duty of the head of every family to provide such a
place for the accommodation of those who are dependent on him.
_Proper Construction of Out-door Privies._--The most practical and
generally satisfactory device heretofore invented for the disposal of
the sewage of communities unprovided with water-works is what is known as
the Rochdale, or dry-closet, system. By this system a privy, at a
distance from the dwelling, is constructed in the ordinary manner, with
the exception that instead of being open at the back it is tightly
closed. In the space beneath the seat receptacles are placed for
receiving the urine and feces. These may consist of pails of wood or
better of galvanized iron; or a single box occupying the whole space. If
wooden receptacles are used, they should be thoroughly coated on the
inside with tar, to prevent both leakage and the soaking of the liquids
into the wood. One such structure, which the writer knows has been wholly
satisfactory has a brick foundation with walls two feet high around the
front and sides, within which rests a shallow tarred box. It ensures
perfect cleanliness.
In any case this space under the seat is tightly closed, being guarded by
doors that open outward, through which the pails or box may be introduced
and removed for emptying.
Each privy contains a box in which is placed either wood ashes or dry
powdered earth, with a small shovel by which a sufficient quantity of the
dust to cover the deposit is thrown into the pail after each evacuation.
It is remarkable how completely this shovelful of earth or ashes destroys
all disagreeable smell. The privy should be provided with at least two
opposite windows, both of which should be thoroughly screened. The
entrance should have a door that is closed with a spring, so that it
cannot be carelessly or accidentally left open when vacant. At intervals
the pails containing the feces are removed, and the contents are carried
to a distance and buried.
Another plan that is quite satisfactory where iron pails are used, is to
place a quantity of water in the vessels for receiving the feces, and
then to pour in a small quantity of kerosene; the latter substance forms
a layer over the water that keeps out flies, and does away largely with
the disagreeable odors that are likely to emanate.
If any contagious disease exists among those who use such a closet, the
fecal material should be carefully sterilized before being removed, as
by means of corrosive sublimate, carbolic acid, chlorinated lime, or any
one of the many commercial disinfectants containing crysylic acid, all of
which may be obtained at any drug store. If carbolic acid or other liquid
antiseptics be used the amount by volume should be equal to about five
per cent. of the material to be treated; the proportion of corrosive
sublimate should be at least 1 to 1,000 where this disinfectant is used.
Along with whatever antiseptic is chosen, water should be added in
sufficient quantity to permit the whole to be rendered semi-fluid, and
the mixture should then be thoroughly stirred, and the chemical left to
act for some hours before emptying the receptacle. By far the most
satisfactory method of sterilizing infected material, however, is by
boiling, since disease-germs are killed by such a temperature in a few
moments. Where iron receptacles are used, therefore, the simplest method
is to set them upon an open fire in the yard for a little while.
A privy constructed after the manner just described possesses some
advantages even over the regulation water-closets that are used in
cities, since they are cheaper in original cost, require less repairs,
and are uninjured by a freezing temperature. The amount of care required
to keep them in proper condition is not excessive, and they are so
infinitely superior from a hygienic standpoint to the old-time privy that
no sort of comparison is possible.
It should always be remembered that the principal advantages of this
closet are that where it is used we are able to collect all of the
evacuations, which may then be properly deodorized with soil or ashes,
and that it may then be finally disposed of in such a way that it cannot
be reached by hogs or other animals; of very great importance also is the
screening of the closet, since only in this way is it possible to prevent
flies from gaining entrance to the fecal material in the receiving pails.
_Water supply._[2]--In the location of houses and schools an eye should
always be had to selecting a site where it is possible to obtain good,
pure water. To those fortunate dwellers in the mountainous regions of our
country this is usually a matter of little difficulty, since it is always
possible to find a location in the neighborhood of which the purest
spring water may be obtained. In less favored regions the well becomes
the main reliance, while cisterns are used in some portions of our
country, in which water is collected during the rainy seasons of the
year. Of the two, the former is undoubtedly to be preferred, provided a
pump be used instead of the old fashioned bucket. The writer is strongly
of the opinion that a very large proportion of the contamination to which
sources of water-supply are subject comes from the bucket being drunk
from or handled by persons with contagious diseases, or from germs being
blown into the well with dust, or carried in by means of insects and
small animals. It is inconceivable that any appreciable amount of
contamination from the surface can reach the underground streams that
supply wells in localities that are thinly populated, though it is
unquestionably true that a well might be infected as a result of the
entrance of surface-water where its top is not properly protected. On the
other hand we have in an open well or cistern every facility afforded for
the entrance of bacteria.
It is unquestionably of the utmost importance that wells be carefully
covered over, and every precaution should be taken to prevent
surface-water leaking into them around their edges. In order to comply
with these conditions a pump is essential, since it is the only means by
which water can be brought to the surface without exposing the contents
of the well to contamination. It is likewise of the first importance to
have the walls of the well curbed to a sufficient depth to prevent the
possibility of seepage from the surface. It is, of course, also quite
necessary that the well be of sufficient depth--the lower we go the more
likely are we to secure a perfectly pure water. In regions where the
water rises to within eight or ten feet, or less, of the surface, the
possibility of the well being contaminated during the rainy season by
seepage is considerably increased, and the waters of such wells should be
used only after analyses have shown that they are pure; where this cannot
be done, the water should be boiled before being drunk. Of course, the
possibilities of contamination are greatly increased if the locality be
thickly inhabited.
As has been before remarked, cisterns are more liable to contamination
from the air than are wells, chiefly owing to the fact that they are
supplied by water that is conducted into them by gutters from the tops of
houses. There is no question that during the dry seasons dust containing
many kinds of bacteria is deposited all over the tops of houses and
remains there until washed away by the rains. While it is true that the
sunlight quickly kills most germs that produce disease a certain number
of them would inevitably escape, and having gained entrance to a
cistern, would be likely to multiply and later cause trouble. It is thus
seen that however pure the rain-water may originally have been--and it is
among the purest of all waters--it is likely to become contaminated in
the process of collection, and may ultimately in this way become the
source of disease. Where any doubt exists as to the purity of such water
it should be boiled before use.
Surface-streams also occasionally supply drinking-water in rural
districts, and while the use of such waters may not always be attended by
danger, their contamination by disease-producing germs is much more to be
feared than when they are derived from wells or springs; where streams
arise from and keep their course through uninhabited districts the
probabilities are strong that their waters are pure and fit for use, but
where they run through cultivated fields, and particularly where they
pass in the neighborhood of houses, their waters should never be looked
upon as being drinkable,--except after being boiled or properly filtered.
Inasmuch as adequate filtration is exceedingly difficult to carry out,
and requires a somewhat extensive and costly plant, this is, as a rule,
not feasible for the dweller in country districts, and boiling,
therefore, remains the only satisfactory method of rendering the water
fit for use where doubt exists as to its purity.
_Location of Pens and Stables for Animals._--Animals should always be
housed at some little distance from the dwelling. While it is true that
man does not often contract directly diseases from hogs, sheep, horses
and cattle, there are some maladies of a most serious character that come
to us in this way, and we should, therefore, always guard against their
occurrence by removing ourselves as far as is possible from sources of
possible infection. The matter also has an æsthetic side, as odors of a
disagreeable character may prove very annoying where animals are kept too
close to the house. It is likewise of importance that stables should be,
if possible, on lower ground than the dwelling, since during rains
materials from their dung may be washed around and under the house, and
may possibly gain access to the well.
Every care should be taken to keep hog-pens and stables clean, since
otherwise very foul smells are engendered that oftentimes find their way
to neighboring houses. There is also a suspicion that some of the germs
that produce disease find the conditions suitable for their stables
and pig-sties.
In this connection it might be well to warn those unacquainted with the
subject against the _all too common practice_ of close association with
dogs, since it is well established that in addition to hydrophobia they
may transmit, while apparently in perfect health, maladies of a deadly
character to the human being. It cannot be too often emphasized that the
less intimate our association with the lower animals is, the greater the
likelihood of our escaping many serious diseases.
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